# 22.1 Representations of graphs

## 22.1-1

Given an adjacency-list representation of a directed graph, how long does it take to compute the $\text{out-degree}$ of every vertex? How long does it take to compute the $\text{in-degree}$s?

• The time to compute the $\text{out-degree}$ of every vertext is

$$\sum_{v \in V}O(\text{out-degree}(v)) = O(|E| + |V|),$$

which is straightforward.

• As for the $\text{in-degree}$, we have to scan through all adjacency lists and keep counters for how many times each vertex has been pointed to. Thus, the time complexity is also $O(|E| + |V|)$ becasue we'll visit all nodes and edges.

## 22.1-2

Give an adjacency-list representation for a complete binary tree on $7$ vertices. Give an equivalent adjacency-matrix representation. Assume that vertices are numbered from $1$ to $7$ as in a binary heap.

\begin{aligned} 1 & \to 2 \to 3 \\ 2 & \to 1 \to 4 \to 5 \\ 3 & \to 1 \to 6 \to 7 \\ 4 & \to 2 \\ 5 & \to 2 \\ 6 & \to 3 \\ 7 & \to 3 \end{aligned}

$$\begin{array}{c|ccccccc|} & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\ \hline 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 4 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 5 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 6 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 7 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \hline \end{array}$$

## 22.1-3

The transpose of a directed graph $G = (V, E)$ is the graph $G^\text T = (V, E^\text T)$, where $E^\text T = \{(v, u) \in V \times V: (u, v) \in E \}$. Thus, $G^\text T$ is $G$ with all its edges reversed. Describe efficient algorithms for computing $G^\text T$ from $G$, for both the adjacency-list and adjacency-matrix representations of $G$. Analyze the running times of your algorithms.

Assume the original adjacency list is $Adj$.

 1 2 3 4 let Adj'[1..|V|] be a new adjacency list of the transposed G^T for each vertex u ∈ G.V for each vertex v ∈ Adj[u] INSERT(Adj'[v], u) 

Time complexity: $O(|E| + |V|)$.

Transpose the original matrix by looking along every entry above the diagonal, and swapping it with the entry that occurs below the diagonal.

Time complexity: $O(|V|^2)$.

## 22.1-4

Given an adjacency-list representation of a multigraph $G = (V, E)$, describe an $O(V + E)$-time algorithm to compute the adjacency-list representation of the "equivalent" undirected graph $G' = (V, E')$, where $E'$ consists of the edges in $E$ with all multiple edges between two vertices replaced by a single edge and with all self-loops removed.

Create a new adjacency-list $Adj'$ of size $|V|$ and an empty matrix $M$ of size $|V|^2$ first. For each vertex $u$ in the multigraph $G$, we iterably examine each vertex $v$ of $Adj[u]$.

• If $M(u, v) == \emptyset$, mark $M(u, v)$ as $\text{true}$, then add $v$ to $Adj'[u]$.
• If $M(u, v) == true$, do nothing.

Since we lookup in the adjacency-list $Adj$ for $|V| + |E|$ times, the time complexity is $O(|V| + |E|)$.

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 EQUIVALENT-UNDIRECTED-GRAPH let Adj'[1..|V|] be a new adjacency list let M be |V| × |V| for each vertex u ∈ G.V for each v ∈ Adj[u] if M[u, v] == Ø && u != v M[u, v] = true INSERT(Adj'[u], v) 

## 22.1-5

The square of a directed graph $G = (V, E)$ is the graph $G^2 = (V, E^2)$ such that $(u, v) \in E^2$ if and only if $G$ contains a path with at most two edges between $u$ and $v$. Describe efficient algorithms for computing $G^2$ from $G$ for both the adjacency-list and adjacency-matrix representations of $G$. Analyze the running times of your algorithms.

To compute $G^2$ from the adjacency-list representation $Adj$ of $G$, we perform the following for each $Adj[u]$:

 1 2 3 4 for each v ∈ Adj[u] for each w ∈ Adj[v] edge(u, w) ∈ E^2 INSERT(Adj2[u], w) 

where $Adj2$ is the adjacency-list representation of $G^2$. For every edge in $Adj$ we scan at most $|V|$ vertices, we compute $Adj2$ in time $O(VE)$.

After we have computed $Adj2$, we have to remove any duplicate edges from the lists (there may be more than one two-edge path in $G$ between any two vertices). Removing duplicate edges is done in $O(V + E')$ where $E' = O(VE)$ is the number of edges in $Adj2$ as shown in exercise 22.1-4. Thus the total running time is

$$O(VE) + O(V + VE) = O(VE).$$

However, if the original graph $G$ contains self-loops, we should modify the algorithm so that self-loops are not removed.

Let $A$ denote the adjacency-matrix representation of $G$. The adjacency-matrix representation of $G^2$ is the square of $A$. Computing $A^2$ can be done in time $O(V^3)$ (and even faster, theoretically; Strassen's algorithm for example will compute $A^2$ in $O(V^{\lg 7})$).

## 22.1-6

Most graph algorithms that take an adjacency-matrix representation as input require time $\Omega(V^2)$, but there are some exceptions. Show how to determine whether a directed graph $G$ contains a universal sink $-$ a vertex with $\text{in-degree}$ $|V| - 1$ and $\text{out-degree}$ $0$ $-$ in time $O(V)$, given an adjacency matrix for $G$.

Start by examining position $(1, 1)$ in the adjacency matrix. When examining position $(i, j)$,

• if a $1$ is encountered, examine position $(i + 1, j)$, and
• if a $0$ is encountered, examine position $(i, j + 1)$.

Once either $i$ or $j$ is equal to $|V|$, terminate.

  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 IS-CONTAIN-UNIVERSAL-SINK(M) i = j = 1 while i < |V| and j < |V| // There's an out-going edge, so examine the next row if M[i, j] == 1 i = i + 1 // There's no out-going edge, so see if we could reach the last column of current row else if M[i, j] == 0 j = j + 1 check if vertex i is a universal sink 

If a graph contains a universal sink, then it must be at vertex $i$.

To see this, suppose that vertex $k$ is a universal sink. Since $k$ is a universal sink, row $k$ will be filled with $0$'s, and column $k$ will be filled with $1$'s except for $M[k, k]$, which is filled with a $0$. Eventually, once row $k$ is hit, the algorithm will continue to increment column $j$ until $j = |V|$.

To be sure that row $k$ is eventually hit, note that once column $k$ is reached, the algorithm will continue to increment $i$ until it reaches $k$.

This algorithm runs in $O(V)$ and checking if vertex $i$ is a universal sink is done in $O(V)$. Therefore, the total running time is $O(V) + O(V) = O(V)$.

## 22.1-7

The incidence matrix of a directed graph $G = (V, E)$ with no self-loops is a $|V| \times |E|$ matrix $B = (b_{ij})$ such that

$$b_{ij} = \begin{cases} -1 & \text{if edge j leaves vertex i}, \\ 1 & \text{if edge j enters vertex i}, \\ 0 & \text{otherwise}. \end{cases}$$

Describe what the entries of the matrix product $BB^\text T$ represent, where $B^\text T$ is the transpose of $B$.

$$BB^\text T(i, j) = \sum\limits_{e \in E}b_{ie} b_{ej}^\text T = \sum\limits_{e \in E} b_{ie}b_{je}.$$

• If $i = j$, then $b_{ie} b_{je} = 1$ (it is $1 \cdot 1$ or $(-1) \cdot (-1)$) whenever $e$ enters or leaves vertex $i$, and $0$ otherwise.
• If $i \ne j$, then $b_{ie} b_{je} = -1$ when $e = (i, j)$ or $e = (j, i)$, and $0$ otherwise.

Thus,

$$BB^\text T(i, j) = \begin{cases} \text{degree of i = in-degree + out-degree} & \text{if i = j}, \\ \text{-(\# of edges connecting i and j)} & \text{if i \ne j}. \end{cases}$$

## 22.1-8

Suppose that instead of a linked list, each array entry $Adj[u]$ is a hash table containing the vertices $v$ for which $(u, v) \in E$. If all edge lookups are equally likely, what is the expected time to determine whether an edge is in the graph? What disadvantages does this scheme have? Suggest an alternate data structure for each edge list that solves these problems. Does your alternative have disadvantages compared to the hash table?

The expected lookup time is $O(1)$, but in the worst case it could take $O(|V|)$.

If we first sorted vertices in each adjacency list then we could perform a binary search so that the worst case lookup time is $O(\lg |V|)$, but this has the disadvantage of having a much worse expected lookup time.